Electrophysiological pattern of dream experience

Dreaming is a common human experience investigated from multiple perspectives over the centuries. Recently, this phenomenon has stimulated scientific interest, becoming a peculiar context to study memory processes and consciousne

Spotlight on dream recall. The ages of dreams

Brain and sleep maturation covary across different stages of life. At the same time, dream generation and dream recall are intrinsically dependent on the development of neural systems. The aim of this paper is to review the existing studies about dreaming in infancy, adulthood, and the elderly stage of life, assessing whether dream mentation may reflect changes of the underlying cerebral activity and cognitive processes. It should be mentioned that some evidence from childhood investigations, albeit still weak and contrasting, revealed a certain correlation between cognitive skills and specific features of dream reports. In this respect, infantile amnesia, confabulatory reports, dream-reality discerning, and limitation in language production and emotional comprehension should be considered as important confounding factors. Differently, growing evidence in adults suggests that the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the encoding and retrieval of episodic memories may remain the same across different states of consciousness. More directly, some studies on adults point to shared neural mechanisms between waking cognition and corresponding dream features. A general decline in the dream recall frequency is commonly reported in the elderly, and it is explained in terms of a diminished interest in dreaming and in its emotional salience. Although empirical evidence is not yet available, an alternative hypothesis associates this reduction to an age-related cognitive decline. The state of the art of the existing knowledge is partially due to the variety of methods used to investigate dream experience. Very few studies in elderly and no investigations in childhood have been performed to understand whether dream recall is related to specific electrophysiological pattern at different ages. Most of all, the lack of longitudinal psychophysiological studies seems to be the main issue. As a main message, we suggest that future longitudinal studies should collect dream reports upon awakening from different sleep states and include neurobiological measures with cognitive performance

EEG oscillations during sleep and dream recall. State- or trait-like individual differences?

Dreaming represents a peculiar form of cognitive activity during sleep. On the basis of the well-known relationship between sleep and memory, there has been a growing interest in the predictive role of human brain activity during sleep on dream recall. Neuroimaging studies indicate that rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is characterized by limbic activation and prefrontal cortex deactivation. This pattern could explain the presence of emotional contents in dream reports. Furthermore, the morphoanatomical measures of amygdala and hippocampus predict some features of dream contents (bizarreness, vividness, and emotional load). More relevant for a general view of dreaming mechanisms, empirical data from neuropsychological and electroencephalographic (EEG) studies support the hypothesis that there is a sort of continuity between the neurophysiological mechanisms of encoding and retrieval of episodic memories across sleep and wakefulness. A notable overlap between the electrophysiological mechanisms underlying emotional memory formation and some peculiar EEG features of REM sleep has been suggested. In particular, theta (5–8 Hz) EEG oscillations on frontal regions in the pre-awakening sleep are predictive of dream recall, which parallels the predictive relation during wakefulness between theta activity and successful retrieval of episodic memory. Although some observations support an interpretation more in terms of an intraindividual than interindividual mechanism, the existing empirical evidence still precludes from definitely disentangling if this relation is explained by state- or trait-like differences

Neurobiologia del ricordo onirico: la ricerca delle basi elettrofisiologiche del richiamo e dell'oblio del sogno

Negli ultimi anni numerosi studi hanno tentato di indagare i correlati EEG alla base del richiamo del sogno, partendo dall’assunzione che il ricordo onirico sia l’unico e possibile oggetto di indagine scientifica. Marzano et al. (2011) hanno osservato che specifici pattern EEG presenti negli ultimi 5 minuti di sonno erano in grado di predire il successivo recupero del sogno. Nello specifico, il decremento dell’alpha temporo-parietale durante lo stadio 2 NREM e l’incremento del theta frontale durante il REM erano associati al ricordo onirico. Dal momento che tali pattern EEG erano già stati riscontrati in veglia in relazione a buone prestazioni in compiti di memoria episodica (Klimesch, 1996; 1999), fu possibile ipotizzare una sovrapponibilità tra i meccanismi di codifica e recupero delle memorie episodiche tra diversi stati di coscienza. Nonostante la ricerca delle basi EEG del richiamo del sogno abbia fatto notevoli passi in avanti negli ultimi decenni, rimangono ancora irrisolte alcune questioni. Da una parte, si deve considerare che la maggior parte delle indagini sono state condotte mediante disegni between-subjects, non consentendo di comprendere se i pattern EEG relati al ricordo onirico fossero ascrivibili a fattori di stato o di tratto. Dall’altra parte, si vuole sottolineare che gli studi sono stati realizzati quasi esclusivamente su soggetti giovani e la relazione tra invecchiamento e dreaming è stata scarsamente indagata. L’obiettivo del primo lavoro è stato proprio quello di chiarire la questione “stato-tratto” mediante un disegno within-subjects, tentando, dunque, di comprendere se i correlati EEG del ricordo onirico fossero dipendenti da fattori contingenti il background fisiologico di riferimento da cui i soggetti venivano risvegliati (ipotesi di stato), oppure se fossero dipendenti da fattori interindividuali stabili dei soggetti registrati (ipotesi di tratto). 24 soggetti giovani sono stati registrati mediante polisonnografia (PSG) per almeno 2 sessioni sperimentali, al fine di ottenere entrambe le condizioni di ricordo (REC) e non-ricordo (NREC) del sogno al risveglio da uno stesso stadio di sonno (2NREM o REM). I dati quantitativi dell’EEG sono stati analizzati con la Fast Fourier Transform. I confronti statistici tra REC e NREC hanno mostrato che: a) il ricordo onirico al risveglio da NREM è predetto da un decremento del delta fronto-temporale sinistro (p≤0.0034).; b) il ricordo onirico al risveglio da REM è associato all’incremento dell’alpha parietale (p≤0.008) e da un trend che va nella direzione di un incremento del theta frontale. Date le numerose evidenze di una relazione tra theta frontale e memoria, si è scelto di applicare un’analisi specifica per l’attività oscillatoria (algoritmo BOSC-Better OSCillation, Caplan et al., 2001) del range del theta, che ha confermato la presenza di una robusta associazione tra il theta delle regioni frontopolari e il ricordo onirico. Tale pattern EEG è risultato, peraltro, relato al carico emotivo soggettivamente stimato del ricordo del sogno. Tali risultati sono da un lato in linea con i Modelli di Attivazione (Antrobus, 1991), vale a dire con l’idea che un background EEG caratterizzato da una maggiore desincronizzazione possa favorire il successivo recupero dell’attività mentale (Antrobus, 1991). Dall’altro, la relazione tra il theta frontale e il ricordo onirico nel REM replica i riscontri di Marzano et al. (2011), fornendo ulteriore supporto all’ipotesi di continuità. Inoltre, i risultati sono coerenti con una ipotesi di “stato”: non sono caratteristiche stabili dei soggetti registrati a predire il ricordo onirico al risveglio, ma è una particolare attività corticale durante uno specifico stadio di sonno a determinare il successivo richiamo del sogno. Il secondo studio aveva lo scopo di indagare gli specifici pattern EEG relati al ricordo onirico nell’anziano. 40 anziani sani sono stati registrati con PSG notturna. 20 soggetti sono stati risvegliati da fase REM e 20 da stadio 2 NREM, raccogliendo al mattino l’eventuale ricordo onirico. I dati quantitativi dell’EEG sono stati analizzati con la Fast Fourier Transform. Per gli ultimi 5 min di sonno è stata effettuata la detezione dell’attività oscillatoria con il metodo BOSC. I confronti statistici tra i REC e i NREC hanno evidenziato che: a) Il ricordo onirico al risveglio da stadio 2 è associato ad una trend che va nella direzione di un incremento dell’attività beta nelle aree temporali durante l’intera notte; b) Il ricordo onirico al risveglio da REM è associato ad un trend che va nella direzione di un incremento dell’attività alpha durante l’intera notte. La BOSC ha rilevato che le oscillazioni alpha a 8.5 Hz negli ultimi minuti di sonno REM predicono il successivo ricordo onirico (p≤0.025). E’ emersa inoltre una relazione robusta tra alcuni parametri macrostrutturali, indicativi della frammentarietà del sonno, e le variabili oniriche. In particolare, per i soggetti risvegliati da sonno NREM: a) la vividezza del ricordo onirico è correlata positivamente alla durata della veglia intrasonno; b) l’indice di efficienza del sonno è correlato negativamente alla lunghezza soggettivamente stimata del sogno; c) il numero totale di parole del report è correlato negativamente al numero di arousal. Per i soggetti risvegliati da sonno REM la bizzarria è correlata positivamente con il numero di arousal. Presi assieme, tali risultati appaiano compatibili con quanto rilevato nello studio precedente, e, dunque, ancora una volta in linea con i Modelli di Attivazione (Antrobus, 1991), dal momento che l’elevata attività beta in NREM e l'attività alpha in REM possono ritenersi espressione di un relativo arousal corticale. E’ opportuno evidenziare alcuni limiti presenti nei due studi condotti. Nel primo esperimento, sebbene i nap pomeridiani abbiano consentito di reiterare più agevolmente le sessioni sperimentali, è possibile che il sonno dei soggetti registrati possa essere meno stabile in questa fascia oraria. Nel secondo lavoro emerge, invece, l’assenza di una notte di adattamento. Tale scelta è stata motivata da una difficoltà di reclutamento e disponibilità, entro la popolazione anziana, di modificare le proprie abitudini di sonno per più di una notte consecutiva. Sarebbe opportuno per il futuro realizzare un’indagine volta a confrontare i correlati EEG del ricordo onirico tra giovani ed anziani entro un unico protocollo notturno. Inoltre, sarà utile considerare anche la condizione del “white dream”, corrispondente alla sensazione del soggetto di aver sognato senza però essere in grado di riportare alcun contenuto onirico. E’, infatti, possibile ipotizzare che a un livello “intermedio” di ricordo onirico, possa corrispondere anche un livello medio di attivazione corticale. Infine, si prevede di tenere sotto controllo, con ulteriori indagini, il contributo della variabile omeostatica e circadiana, implementando un protocollo notturno che preveda risvegli multipli per ciascuno stadio e ciclo di sonno, con la relativa raccolta di report onirici

Mental sleep activity and disturbing dreams in the lifespan

Sleep significantly changes across the lifespan, and several studies underline its crucial role in cognitive functioning. Similarly, mental activity during sleep tends to covary with age. This review aims to analyze the characteristics of dreaming and disturbing dreams at dierent age brackets. On the one hand, dreams may be considered an expression of brain maturation and cognitive development, showing relations with memory and visuo-spatial abilities. Some investigations reveal that specific electrophysiological patterns, such as frontal theta oscillations, underlie dreams during sleep, as well as episodic memories in the waking state, both in young and older adults. On the other hand, considering the role of dreaming in emotional processing and regulation, the available literature suggests that mental sleep activity could have a beneficial role when stressful events occur at dierent age ranges. We highlight that nightmares and bad dreams might represent an attempt to cope the adverse events, and the degrees of cognitive-brain maturation could impact on these mechanisms across the lifespan. Future investigations are necessary to clarify these relations. Clinical protocols could be designed to improve cognitive functioning and emotional regulation by modifying the dream contents or the ability to recall/non-recall them

The functional role of dreaming in emotional processes

Dream experience (DE) represents a fascinating condition linked to emotional processes and the human inner world. Although the overlap between REM sleep and dreaming has been overcome, several studies point out that emotional and perceptually vivid contents are more frequent when reported upon awakenings from this sleep stage. Actually, it is well-known that REM sleep plays a pivotal role in the processing of salient and emotional waking-life experiences, strongly contributing to the emotional memory consolidation. In this vein, we highlighted that, to some extent, neuroimaging studies showed that the processes that regulate dreaming and emotional salience in sleep mentation share similar neural substrates of those controlling emotions during wakefulness. Furthermore, the research on EEG correlates of the presence/absence of DE and the results on EEG pattern related to the incorporated memories converged to assign a crucial role of REM theta oscillations in emotional re-processing. In particular, the theta activity is involved in memory processes during REM sleep as well as during the waking state, in line with the continuity hypothesis. Also, the gamma activity seems to be related to emotional processes and dream recall as well as to lucid dreams. Interestingly, similar EEG correlates of DE have been found in clinical samples when nightmares or dreams occur. Research on clinical samples revealed that promoting the rehearsal of frightening contents aimed to change them is a promising method to treat nightmares, and that lucid dreams are associated with an attenuation of nightmares. In this view, DE can defuse emotional traumatic memories when the emotional regulation and the fear extinction mechanisms are compromised by traumatic and frightening events. Finally, dreams could represent a sort of simulation of reality, providing the possibility to create a new scenario with emotional mastery elements to cope with dysphoric items included in nightmares. In addition, it could be hypothesized that the insertion of bizarre items besides traumatic memories might be functional to “impoverish” the negative charge of the experiences

State- or trait-like individual differences in dream recall. Preliminary findings from a within-subjects study of multiple nap REM sleep awakenings

We examined the question whether the role of EEG oscillations in predicting presence/absence of dream recall (DR) is explained by "state-" or "trait-like" factors. Six healthy subjects were awakened from REM sleep in a within-subjects design with multiple naps, until a recall and a non-recall condition were obtained. Naps were scheduled in the early afternoon and were separated by 1 week. Topographical EEG data of the 5-min of REM sleep preceding each awakening were analyzed by power spectral analysis [Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)] and by a method to detect oscillatory activity [Better OSCillations (BOSC)]. Both analyses show that REC is associated to higher frontal theta activity (5-7 Hz) and theta oscillations (6.06 Hz) compared to NREC condition, but only the second comparison reached significance. Our pilot study provides support to the notion that sleep and wakefulness share similar EEG correlates of encoding in episodic memories, and supports the "state-like hypothesis": DR may depend on the physiological state related to the sleep stage from which the subject is awakened rather than on a stable individual EEG pattern

Oscillatory EEG activity during REM sleep in elderly people predicts subsequent dream recall after awakenings

Several findings underlined that the electrophysiological (EEG) background of the last segment of sleep before awakenings may predict the presence/absence of dream recall (DR) in young subjects. However, little is known about the EEG correlates of DR in elderly people. Only an investigation found differences between recall and non-recall conditions during NREM sleep EEG in older adults, while—surprisingly—no EEG predictor of DR was found for what concerns REMsleep. Considering REMsleep as a privileged scenario to produce mental sleep activity related to cognitive processes, our study aimed to investigate whether specific EEG topography and frequency changes during REM sleep in elderly people may predict a subsequent recall of mental sleep activity. Twenty-one healthy older volunteers (mean age 69.2 ± 6.07 SD) and 20 young adults (mean age 23.4 ± 2.76 SD) were recorded for one night from19 scalp derivations. Dreams were collected upon morning awakenings from REM sleep. EEG signals of the last 5min were analyzed by the Better OSCillation algorithm to detect the peaks of oscillatory activity in both groups. Statistical comparisons revealed that older as well as young individuals recall their dream experience when the last segment of REM sleep is characterized by frontal theta oscillations. No Recall (Recall vs. Non-Recall) × Age (Young vs. Older) interaction was found. This result replicated the previous evidence in healthy young subjects, as shown in within- and between-subjects design. The findings are completely original for older individuals, demonstrating that theta oscillations are crucial for the retrieval of dreaming also in this population. Furthermore, our results did not confirm a greater presence of the theta activity in healthy aging. Conversely, we found a greater amount of rhythmic theta and alpha activity in young than older participants. It is worth noting that the theta oscillations detected are related to cognitive functioning. We emphasize the notion that the oscillatory theta activity should be distinguished from the non-rhythmic theta activity identified in relation to other phenomena such as (a) sleepiness and hypoarousal conditions during the waking state and (b) cortical slowing, considered as an EEG alteration in clinical samples

Sleep-based interventions in Alzheimer’s disease: promising approaches from prevention to treatment along the disease trajectory

The multifactorial nature of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has led scientific researchers to focus on the modifiable and treatable risk factors of AD. Sleep fits into this context, given the bidirectional relationship with AD confirmed by several studies over the last years. Sleep disorders appear at an early stage of AD and continue throughout the entire course of the pathology. Specifically, sleep abnormalities, such as more fragmented sleep, increase in time of awakenings, worsening of sleep quality and primary sleep disorders raise with the severity and progression of AD. Intervening on sleep, therefore, means acting both with prevention strategies in the pre-clinical phase and with treatments during the course of the disease. This review explores sleep disturbances in the different stages of AD, starting from the pre-clinical stage. Particular attention is given to the empirical evidence investigating obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) disorder and the mechanisms overlapping and sharing with AD. Next, we discuss sleep-based intervention strategies in the healthy elderly population, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and AD patients. We mention interventions related to behavioral strategies, combination therapies, and bright light therapy, leaving extensive space for new and raising evidence on continuous positive air pressure (CPAP) treatment effectiveness. Finally, we clarify the role of NREM sleep across the AD trajectory and consider the most recent studies based on the promising results of NREM sleep enhancement, which use innovative experimental designs and techniques

Later school start time: the impact of sleep on academic performance and health in the adolescent population

The crucial role of sleep in physical and mental health is well known, especially during the developmental period. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in examining the relationship between sleep patterns and school performance in adolescents. At this stage of life, several environmental and biological factors may affect both circadian and homeostatic regulation of sleep. A large part of this population does not experience adequate sleep, leading to chronic sleep restriction and/or disrupted sleep–wake cycles. Studies investigating the effects of different sleep–wake schedules on academic achievement showed that impaired sleep quality and quantity are associated with decreased learning ability and compromised daytime functioning. This review focuses on the most recent studies that evaluated the effects of modified school start time on sleep patterns and related outcomes. Moreover, based on the available empirical evidence, we intend to propose a direction for future studies targeted to implement prevention or treatment programs by modifying sleep timing. View Full-Tex